Philosophy and educational psychology

Understanding How People Think and Learn

Discussions on how individuals think and learn have taken place throughout history. As a result, various perspectives,influenced by philosophy and psychology, have developed and continue to be developed. Successful instructional designershave a clear understanding of the major perspectives and how they influence the design and implementation of instruction.

This chapter provides an overview of the most common perspectives on thinking and learning that influence instructionaldesign.

Guiding Questions

Why is it important for instructional designers to understand how people think?How have historical and current perspectives on thinking and the thinking process in instructional design beeninfluenced by philosophy and educational psychology?What point of view do instructional designers typically have regarding thinking and the thinking process?What is learning?Why is it important for instructional designers to understand how people learn?What are two of the most common theories on how people learn that instructional designers make use of in their work?What different types of learning are there?

Key Terms

behaviorism (page 30)classical conditioning model (page 34)cognition (page 27)cognitive abilities (page 28)cognitivism (page 31)constructivism (page 31)eclecticism (page 17)executive abilities (page 28)learning (page 33)learning objective (page 38)memory (page 28)mental power (page 28)metacognition (page 28)neuroscience (page 31)operant conditioning model (page 35)scholasticism (page 29)

Chapter OverviewTake a moment to reflect on what your definition is for thinking. If you struggled to come up with what you believe is a cleardefinition, don’t anguish over it because you are not alone. John Dewey, in How We Think, wrote, “No words are oftener onour lips than thinking and thought. So profuse and varied, indeed, is our use of these words that it is not easy to define justwhat we mean by them” (1910, p. 2). The words that Dewey wrote decades ago still ring true. Thinking remains a complexconcept that is often used in a variety of contexts to indicate very different things; therefore, at any given time, understandingwhat thinking means can be quite a challenge.

KEY TAKEAWAYS BEFORE ATTEMPTING THIS ASSIGNMENT

Despite the challenges inherent in understanding thinking and the thinking process, having knowledge about how peopleprocess, store, and retrieve information—in other words, think—is crucial for an instructional designer. This understanding canhelp him or her better comprehend how people learn because thinking and learning are very much interconnected. Aninstructional designer who has a solid grasp on thinking and learning is able to design and develop efficient, effective, andmeaningful instructional interventions.

The goal of this chapter is to provide you with a framework for understanding how people think and learn. Our intention isto simplify, if possible, how thinking and learning have been conceptualized historically and in more modern times. Theopening section of the chapter is organized around two major topics. The first is how instructional designers typically viewthinking and the thinking process. The second is a discussion on thinking from various historical and contemporaryperspectives. The second half of the chapter examines two major psychological perspectives of learning—behaviorism andcognitivism—and describes how each conceptualizes the learning process.

Cognition and Basic Cognitive FunctionsBefore beginning a discussion on how instructional designers typically view thinking and the thinking process, an importantconcept to understand is cognition. How people go about the process of thinking is often referred to as cognition. Cognition isthe mental process of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment. In essence,cognition includes all of the brain’s mental input and output. Cognition encompasses basic activities like using language andmath functions during a trip to the hardware store, to making complex decisions such as selecting between two job offers, towriting a creative story, to being able to understand another person’s perspective.

Cognition and thinking are terms that can be used interchangeably. This may not resonate well with some; however, thisbook is not the place for a debate over the intricacies of cognition and how thinking may or may not be synonymous. It isimportant to realize as an instructional designer that cognition and thinking can be and often are used to refer to the same thing.

Basic Cognitive Functions

Numerous technical terms exist related to cognition. Making sense of these is not an easy task. There are hundreds of terms forspecific components of cognition, with many having the same or very similar meanings. What makes it difficult in dealing withthese components of cognition is that they can mean different things in different settings. Some of the differences may reflectimportant scientific or theoretical nuances, but many are simply jargon specific to a particular discipline or profession.

The important thing to remember is that cognition and the components of cognition are important to understand because, asmentioned earlier, understanding how people think helps to understand how they learn. Understanding how people learn will

help you as an instructional designer assist your clients in developing effective and efficient instructional interventions. You donot, however, need to be a cognitive scientist to have an adequate understanding of how people think.

Let’s review some important concepts related to cognition.

Memory

Memory is much more than just a passive storage system of knowledge. Memory is a set of active processes that encodeinformation. Memory places information into “packages” or “packets” making information easier to recall and allowing it to beassociated with related items already in memory. Memory also involves storing information. Part of this process is the constantrearranging of what has been stored for that new knowledge to be integrated with what has already been stored. Additionally, itallows provides for locating and retrieving of information as it is needed.

Mental Power

Mental power is the basic energy that supports mental activity. It refers to how much mental work can be performed during aspecific amount of time. Power can be used to sustain something simple like using a television remote control or somethingmore complex like operating a computer. With either case, the central issue focuses on having enough power on hand tocomplete the task. In the cognitive domain, power refers to arousal level, concentration span, channel capacity, and mentalstamina.

Specific Cognitive Abilities

These functions refer to an individual’s stored supply of knowledge and skills. This includes items such as reading, writing,comprehension, motor skills, and visual-spatial skills.

Executive Abilities

Executive abilities encompass a very large category of cognitive functions. Executive abilities include such higher-orderthinking skills as being able to anticipate future needs and planning accordingly, the ability to set priorities, and being able toself-correct and regulate actions. In essence, these are the capacities, which allow an individual to use her mental power andspecific cognitive abilities to meet social, professional, and psychological needs.

Metacognition

Metacognition is the ability to control one’s own cognitive processes. It is often referred to as the practice of “thinking aboutthinking.” In using metacognition, an individual takes an introspective look at the thought process that she has gone through. Itallows her to critically consider how she arrived at certain ideas, concepts, and thoughts. Metacognition is a reflective processthat helps improve an individual’s control over his or her own thinking process and learning (Bleiberg, 2001; Flavell, 1979;Mayer, 2011, 2017; Ormrod, 2013; Sternberg, 1986; Woolfolk Hoy, 2016).

A Historical Perspective on Thinking: A Brief HistoryHistorically, thinking was consigned to the realm of philosophy. Possibly the earliest theory about how the mind works wasoffered in the 4th and 5th centuries bc by Greek philosophers like Empedocles, Democritus, and Epicurus. These philosophersbelieved that the mind perceived images given off by objects. These perceived images were then copied as sense impressionsand stored into memory. “Knowledge then becomes a matter of knowing these mental copies, and the earliest copy theoriessuggested that the mind knew directly what the sensory nerves brought to it” (Herrnstein & Boring, 1965 as cited in Driscoll,2004).

A very different perspective, suggested by Plato (and much later by Kant), generally known as idealism, stated that the minddoes not directly comprehend reality or copy it. With this perspective, reason is considered the primary source forunderstanding and knowledge. The major proposition behind this perspective is that all data coming from the senses areinterpreted by the mind according to the mind’s innate tendencies (Collinson, 1978; Driscoll, 2004).

Philosophy followed this theme (with numerous slight variations) up until the influence of the Church shifted philosophicalthought around the 9th century. This influence led to what was called scholasticism, a philosophical perspective based upon amixture of Aristotelian and Church writings and thought. Scholastic philosophy was built around a highly organized system oftruths, which were distinct from Church doctrines but were not in opposition to them. Scholastic philosophers, such as ThomasAquinas, believed that human intellect was incapable of acquiring knowledge of intelligible things without illumination fromGod. Individual interaction and participation with the Word of God was necessary if knowledge was to be gained. Thinkingwas directly related to what God provided to individuals through his inspiration (or “illumination”) (Nichols, 2003).

Another shift in the view on thinking began with the dawn of the Renaissance and continued into the 17th and 18thcenturies. A movement began that shifted attention away from the belief that truth was divinely inspired by God and that theindividual was incapable of discerning what is real or what is truth. Philosophers, like Descartes and Locke, believed to be truewhat they saw with their own eyes and experienced with their senses. Rather than assuming God played the key role in theuniverse, humans began to be the standard for judging what was real and what truth was. Human intellect was deemed capableof discriminating between truth and error. Certain defined methods for discovering truth and evaluating evidence came to beconsidered reliable and sufficient for discovering truth. Thinking focused more on observation, experience, rational thought,and the scientific method, rather than solely on God and tradition (Almog, 2002; Sorell, 2001).

A Modern View on Thinking: The Shift from Philosophy to PsychologyWhile philosophy continues to play a role in how thinking and the thinking process is conceptualized, the emergence ofpsychology (especially educational psychology), in the mid- to late 19th century, has had and continues to have the mostsignificant influence on how instructional designers view thinking. Educational psychology, which originated as a separatebranch of psychology in 1892 (Berliner, 1993; Mayer, 2017), has provided a concentrated look at thinking and learningthrough a more scientific perspective—one based upon research and which includes a focus specifically on how thinking andlearning are interconnected.

Two Major Perspectives

Two major perspectives, with several variations, emerged from psychology and have dominated the way instructionaldesigners view how people think, and, in turn, how people learn. Provided in this section are brief explanations of these twodistinctly different perspectives—behaviorist and cognitivist—with mention of key individuals who have had influence on howthese perspectives have developed.

As an instructional designer, it is important to keep in mind that neither perspective is inherently better than the other. Eachperspective offers important contributions that help us understand how individuals think and how people learn. Although mostinstructional designers tend to feel more comfortable with one perspective over the other, instructional designers will useprinciples and practices from both as they design and develop instructional interventions. It is also important to remember thatthese two perspectives are two of out of many that exist. They are described here because they are two of the most influentialperspectives.

Positivism and Interpretivism

Before we begin the discussion of behaviorist and cognitivist perspectives it is important to provide a brief description of twocontrasting philosophical perspectives. We include this information because it helps explain how many people come tounderstand how people think and learn.

Positivism and interpretivism are often seen as a dichotomy for describing individual approaches to how knowledge isgenerated and verified. Positivism presumes that there are only two sources of knowledge—logical reasoning and empiricalexperience. Logical knowledge includes mathematics, which is reducible to formal logic. Empirical knowledge includes suchareas as physics, biology, and psychology. Experience is the only judge of scientific theories (and therefore knowledge).Interpretivism is based upon the view that knowledge is a matter of perspective. To understand the world, an individual mustinterpret it. Schwandt (1998) wrote, “what we take to be objective knowledge and the truth is the result of perspective.Knowledge and truth are created, not discovered by the mind” (p. 167).

As you will read below, behaviorist and cognitivist perspectives draw from the positivist and in interpretist philosophies.

The Behaviorist Perspective

The behaviorist perspective, known as behaviorism, dominated psychology for first half of the 20th century (Brandt & Perkins,2000). Behaviorism includes a group of theories that share several common beliefs—“the generalizability of learningprinciples across species, the importance of focusing on observable events, and the ‘blank slate’ nature of organisms” (Ormrod,2013, p. 48). According to behaviorists, mental processes are invisible and therefore cannot be studied scientifically. What canbe observed is outward behavior; therefore, rather than speculating on internal causes for why things take place, focus shouldbe placed on how organisms respond to different stimuli (Brandt & Perkins, 2000; Brunning, Schraw, & Norby, 2011; Ormrod,2013; Woolfolk Hoy, 2016). From a behaviorist perspective, the human mind is malleable, capable of being shaped and formedinto producing desired responses and behaviors if specific conditions and circumstances are accounted for and controlled.

The early foundational work of behaviorism was carried out by individuals such as Pavlov (1800–1950), Thorndike (1874–1949), Watson (1878–1958), and Guthrie (1886–1959). Their research was most notably conducted using animals—typicallyrats, pigeons, cats, and, in the case of Pavlov, dogs. Examples include the experiments conducted by Pavlov related to

salivation in dogs. He observed that a dog’s behavior could be conditioned in such a manner that if provided with a specificstimulus (e.g., the ringing of a bell) a specific behavior (e.g., salivation) would take place. Pavlov conditioned a dog toassociate the ringing of a bell with eating, which was done by repeated ringing of a bell and then immediately feeding somemeat to the dog. After following this process, Pavlov eventually rang the bell but did not provide meat to the dog; despite this,the dog still salivated in response to hearing the bell. The dog was conditioned to associate the bell with food (Pavlov, 1927).This became known as the Classical Conditioning Model. Skinner, unquestionably the best-known behaviorist, built upon thisearly body of research by developing what is known as operant conditioning. By observing pigeons and rats, Skinner observedthat the increase in the frequency of a behavior was more likely to occur if followed immediately by a reinforcer (i.e., areward) (Skinner, 1978). These concepts provided important insights that have helped provide understanding of the mind andhow people think.

The Cognitivist Perspective

Psychologists in the years following World War II began to move away from behaviorism toward a different perspective of themind and how people think. This perspective was distinguished as cognitivism. With this perspective, internal mental processeswere considered important and capable of being identified and studied (Brandt & Perkins, 2000; Ormrod, 2013). From acognitivist perspective, the human mind is considered highly complex. A metaphor typically used by cognitivists to describethe mind is a computer. Like a computer, the mind processes information through a series of different processes that worktogether as a complete system.

Several individuals have had tremendous influence on the cognitive perspective. The foundations of cognitivism were builton the work of Vygotsky (1896–1934), Dewey, Piaget (1896–1990), and Bruner (1915–).

More Recent Perspectives

Although behavorist and cognitivist perspectives have dominated the way in which thinking has been perceived, more recentperspectives have influenced instructional designers views’ on how people think. These perspectives are constructivism,neuroscience, and postmodernism.

Constructivism

Constructivism, a variant of cognitivism, is centered around the principle that an individual constructs his own understandingof the world he lives in by reflecting on his experiences. An individual generates his own mental models, which he uses tomake sense of his experiences. Brandt and Perkins (2000) write, “Both a philosophical and psychological stance,constructivism argues that the human mind does not simply take in the world but makes it up in an active way” (p. 160).Brooks (2001) describes the underlying principle of constructivism in more detail.

Each of us makes sense of our world by synthesizing new experiences into what we have previously come to understand. Often, weencounter an object, an idea, a relationship, or a phenomenon that doesn’t quite make sense to us. When confronted with such initiallydiscrepant data or perceptions, we either interpret what we see to conform to our present set of rules for explaining and ordering ourwork, or we generate a new set of rules that better accounts for what we perceive to be occurring. Either way, our perceptions and rulesare constantly engaged in a grand dance that shapes our understandings.

(p. 4)

With constructivism, one of the most important factors that influences learning—the construction of meaning and knowledge—is interacting with others. Through social interactions learners will build deeper understandings (van Merrienboer & deBruin, 2014).

Neuroscience

Neuroscience is the study of the brain and nervous system. Neuroscientists focus on interpreting how the brain controls of allits varied and diverse functions. According to the Society for Neuroscience (2014), “Brain researchers are motivated tounderstand behavior. How do cell circuits enable us to read and speak? How and why do we form relationships? How do wethink, remember, despair, or motivate?” (para. 6). Additionally, neuroscientists focus on disorders of the brain and body—howthey occur and how they might be prevented or cured (Society for Neuroscience, 2014).

Although neuroscience is not a new field, the focused application of neuroscience to education has been relatively recent.According to Beauchamp and Beauchamp (2012), “Modern neuroscience research has produced findings about the brain andits functioning that could potentially impact the ways teachers in school classrooms approach their learners” (location 489).These findings can also have an impact on how instructional designers go about creating instruction. It should be noted thatdespite the positive applications of neuroscience in education, there have been many documented instances where applications

have not been based on sound empirical data (Anderson & Della Sala, 2012). According to Mayer (2017), “The potential ofeducational neuroscience rests in building connections between the science of learning and neuroscience to build aneuroscience-informed science of learning” (p. 844). This will help bring about “new implications for instructional design andclassroom teaching” (p. 845).

Postmodernism

In the late 20th century and into the early 21st century, an approach called a postmodernism has provided a differentperspective on how humans think.

Postmodernism is largely a reaction to the assumed certainty of scientific, or objective, efforts to explain reality. In essence, it stemsfrom a recognition that reality is not simply mirrored in human understanding of it, but rather, is constructed as the mind tries tounderstand its own particular and personal reality.

(PBS, 2003)

In addition,

In the postmodern understanding, interpretation is everything; reality only comes into being through our interpretations of what theworld means to us individually. Postmodernism relies on concrete experience over abstract principles, knowing always that the outcomeof one’s own experience will necessarily be fallible and relative, rather than certain and universal.

(PBS, 2003)

As mentioned, postmodern philosophy questions (and often rejects) the idealized view of truth and of knowing inherited frompast philosophical traditions. To the postmodernist, thinking is a dynamic, ever-changing function that depends upon anindividual’s interpretation of the world they live in (Butler, 2003; Goodman, 2008).

An Instructional Designer’s View on ThinkingIt is important to recognize that a person’s perspective on thinking largely depends upon a combination of that person’seducation, training, philosophical beliefs, and profession. The perspective of instructional designers is no different. Aninstructional designer’s perspective on thinking, and in turn learning, is highly influenced by training and by the nature of theprofession.

Instructional designers tend to look at thinking from a pragmatic point of view, asking themselves, What do we need to knowabout thinking and the studies done on thinking that will help develop efficient and effective instructional interventions? It isno surprise that the majority instructional designers are considered eclectic—borrowing from different perspectives and usingwhat works for a given situation to produce desired results. Instructional designers tend to take a systems theory approachwhen it comes to looking at thinking (and learning) by exploring it from several different perspectives, rather than focusingnarrowly on one aspect of what thinking is or is not. Instructional designers perceive thinking as a complex process thatincludes various interconnected elements, and therefore cannot be encapsulated in one neat and tidy description or theory. Thisview has been shaped by centuries of thought and study conducted by philosophers and psychologists on thinking and how themind works.

What is Learning?As is the case with thinking, learning can be conceptualized in a variety of ways. Most often, learning is defined as being arelatively permanent change in either behavior or in mental representations or associations brought about by experience(Ormrod, 2013). The change that takes place will last for some time, but it may or may not last forever. These changes may bereadily observable, such as when a child learns to tie his or her shoes, while other changes may be more subtle, such as whenan individual gains a better appreciation for classical music (Ormrod, 2013). Additionally, these changes that occur may bedeliberate or unintentional, correct or incorrect, and conscious or unconscious (Hill, 2002).

It is important to understand that change occurs as a result of experience. These experiences are events, planned or not, thatoccur in a learner’s life. Thus, change occurs as an individual interacts with his or her environment. It is important to note,however, that not all changes that take place are learned and therefore cannot be attributed to learning. These types of changeare based on maturation or on temporary body states (e.g., fatigue, hunger, intoxication); they are not based on experiences(thus, they are not considered learned).

In examining the definition of learning, we propose that two very different types of changes can take place when learningoccurs. The first is a change in behavior; the other is a change in mental representations or associations. It is important to notethis difference because it reflects the divergent viewpoints of two psychological perspectives: behaviorism and cognitivism.

Two Major (and Very Different) Approaches to How People LearnThere unquestionably exist more than two perspectives that describe how humans learn. Arguably, however, two of the mostinfluential and popular perspectives that have had the greatest impact on instructional design are behaviorism and cognitivism.Throughout much of the first half of the 20th century, behaviorism dominated how instructional designers approached theirwork; it wasn’t until after World War II that cognitivism began to supplant behaviorism by providing an alternative viewpoint.Both perspectives, along with their various branches, continue to have great influence on instructional design activities in the21st century. The purpose of this section is to provide a brief overview on how each perspective approaches how people learn.

A Behavioral Approach to Learning

From a behaviorism perspective, learning is defined as a change in behavior due to experience that can be measured (Burton,Moore, & Magliaro, 2004; Driscoll, 2004; Ormrod, 2015). Woolfolk Hoy (2016) writes that, “Behaviorism attempts to explainlearning by focusing on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors” (p. 198). Brandt and Perkins (2000)add that behaviorism suggests

organisms learn through classical and operant conditioning. Complex behaviors are built up through “shaping”, starting with parts of orrough approximations of the target behavior and providing reinforcement in ways that gradually shape the pattern of behavior in theintended direction. Much learning in natural circumstances occurs because the environment shapes behavior in this way. Not only directrewards like food but also indirect “tokens” of reward shape behavior through learned associations.

(pp. 161–162)

Classical and operant conditioning models provide explanations for how learning specifically takes place within thebehaviorism perspective. The classical conditioning model (developed by Pavlov) describes a type of associative learning.Classical conditioning occurs when two stimuli are presented at approximately the same time. One of the stimuli is anunconditioned stimulus (i.e., it has been shown to elicit an unconditioned response). The other stimulus (neutral stimulus),through its association with the unconditioned stimulus, begins to bring on a response, as well—it becomes a conditionedstimulus that brings about a conditioned response. Figure 2.1 depicts an example of classical conditioning based upon Pavlov’sexperiment with dogs.

Figure 2.1 Classical Conditioning Analysis—Pavlov’s Experiment on Dogs

Source: Adapted from Pavlov, I. (1927). Conditioned reflexes (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). London: Oxford University Press.

The operant conditioning model was developed by Skinner. Skinner believed there were two types of learning—classicalconditioning and operant conditioning. Operant conditioning results when a response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus.The response produced is a voluntary one. The individual (or other organism) producing the response has complete controlover whether the response occurs. Skinner’s term operant indicates that the individual willingly operates on the environmentand therefore can have an effect on it (Driscoll, 2004).

Figure 2.2 is a comparison of operant and classical conditioning.

Figure 2.2 Differences between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Source: Ormrod, J. E. (2007). Human learning. Printed and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.,Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Despite the variants of behaviorism, Ormrod (2015, pp. 30–31) writes that historically behaviorism have shared certain basicassumptions.

Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors and to different species of animals.Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus of study is on stimuli and responses.Internal processes are largely excluded from scientific study.Learning involves a behavior change.Organisms are born was blank slates.Learning is largely the result of environmental events.The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious ones.

The Role of the Learner from a Behavioral Perspective

Skinner (1978) stated that a learner “does not passively absorb knowledge form the world around him but must play an activerole” (p. 5). Therefore, learners learn by doing, experiencing, and engaging in repeated trial and error. Burton et al. (2004)write that, “The emphasis is on the active responding of the learner—the learner must be engaged in the behavior in order tolearn and to validate that learning has occurred” (p. 9).

A Cognitivist Approach to Learning

From a cognitivist perspective, learning is a change in mental representations and associations brought about by experiences.Greeno, Collins, and Resnick (1996) write that cognitivists view learning as “transforming significant understanding wealready have, rather than simple acquisitions written on blank states” (p. 18). This follows the standard cognitivist view oflearning that assumes that mental processes exist, and can be studied scientifically. Brandt and Perkins (2000) noted that earlyresearch in cognitivism “focused primarily on information processing, especially pattern recognition, memory, and problemsolving. The mind was considered a rule-governed computational device. A scientist’s task was to identify the specific rules bywhich the mind manipulates symbols to arrive at results” (p. 165). This view reflects a common metaphor used by manycognitivists that the mind works in the same way as a computer; therefore, learning takes place by applying set-in-placealgorithms. Brandt and Perkins go on to write that, “Over time, cognitive scientists gradually expanded their attention toinclude a remarkable array of human activities: the formation of judgments, decision making, creativity, critical thinking, andeven the emotions” (2000, p. 165).

The Role of the Learner from a Cognitive Perspective

Cognitivists believe that learners are not passively influenced by environmental events; rather, they are active participants intheir own cognition (Ashcraft, 2002). As individuals engage in the learning process, they “actively choose, practice, payattention, ignore, reflect, and make many other decisions as they pursue goals” (Woolfolk Hoy, 2004, p. 236).

What is Learned?

The behaviorist and cognitive perspectives differ in their assumptions regarding what is learned. From the cognitiveperspective, knowledge is learned. It is the increase of knowledge that makes it possible for changes in behavior to occur.According to the behaviorist perspective, the new behaviors themselves are learned (Shuell, 1986).

A Constructivist Approach to Learning

In addition to the two major approaches to how people learn that we discussed above, the constructivist approach has emergedover the past three decades, with a tremendous impact on learning. Constructivism has its roots in both psychology andphilosophy. Constructivism goes beyond the traditional view of cognitivism that “people represent information in their mindsas single or aggregated sets of symbols, and that cognitive activity consists of operating on these symbols by applying to themlearn plans, or algorithms” (Winn, 2004, p. 79).

Marzano (2000) writes, “Constructivism refers to the general principle that learners use their prior knowledge to construct apersonally meaningful understanding of new content that is the focus of learning” (p. 81) The learner takes in information fromthe world, filters this information, and use this information to make his or her own unique reality (Jonassen, 1991). Driscoll(2004) adds that constructivism “rests on the assumption that knowledge is constructed by learners as they attempt to makesense of their experiences. Learners, therefore, are not empty vessels waiting to be filled, but rather active organisms seekingmeaning” (p. 376). Driscoll (2004, pp. 382–383) summarizes the conditions necessary for learning in a constructivistenvironment as:

embedded learning in complex, realistic, and relevant environments;

provision for social negotiation as an integral part of learning;support for multiple perspectives and the use of multiple modes of representation;encouragement of ownership in learning; andnurturing of self-awareness of the knowledge construction process.

Using Various Approaches to LearningThe different approaches to learning can provide very useful perspectives on how people learn. It is generally not advisable tostrictly follow one approach when carrying out instructional design activities, because every instructional context is differentand brings with it different variables that need to be accounted for such as the context, the learners, and the type of learningthat needs to occur. No one approach can completely account for all of these variables. For successful instructional design tooccur, it is critical that instructional designers are able to borrow from the different approaches to develop instructionalinterventions that take into consideration all of these variables.

Types of Learning

As mentioned, one variable that is part of every instructional context is the type of learning that needs to take place.Instructional designers must have the ability to identify different types of learning to design efficient and effective instructionalinterventions. Probably the most well-known and used distinctions made regarding types of learning is that of learningdomains. There are three commonly used learning domains that refer to specific types of learning—cognitive, affective, andpsychomotor. The major idea behind the learning domains is that learning can be organized and measured along a continuumfrom low-level to higher-level knowledge, attitudes, or skills.

Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999) and colleagues are typically credited with developing the original idea and work behind thethree learning domains in the mid-20th century (Eisner, 2000). The result of Bloom’s work originated out of his efforts toimprove university examinations (Eisner, 2000; Ormrod, 2015). The result of this work was three taxonomies of educationalobjectives corresponding to three learning domains. In recent years, other researchers (e.g., Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001;Cangelosi, 1990; Marzano & Kendall, 2007) have published revisions to Bloom’s original work. Despite this, the majorpremise behind Bloom’s original work remains intact.

One of the most useful ways that the learning domains can be used is to consider them when learning objectives are beingdeveloped for instruction. Learning objectives are descriptions of what an individual should know or be able to do once he orshe has completed an instructional intervention. In addition to the development of learning objectives, the domains can beuseful in planning assessments.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain is historically referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain. This taxonomy describes sixlevels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Bloom, Engelhart, Frost, Hill, &Krathwohl, 1956). It is common to consider these levels as a hierarchy—each level building upon the ones below. This is notentirely accurate for every subject or discipline (Seddon, 1978); some subjects or disciplines—like mathematics—do not fitthis structure extremely well (Gronlund, 2000). At the bottom level of the domain (knowledge), individuals can rememberbasic information without necessarily understanding, using, or manipulating it. With evaluation, the highest level, individualscan make judgments about complex ideas, materials, and processes as they are applied in various contexts.

Figure 2.3 Bloom, Engelhart, Frost, Hill, and Krathwohl’s Cognitive Domain (1956)

Source: Adapted from Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Frost, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1956). Taxonomy ofeducational objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.

Affective Domain

The affective domain deals with emotional responses. The levels range from least committed to most committed (Krathwohl,Bloom, & Masia, 1964). The levels are: receiving, responding, valuing, organizing, and internalizing (see Figure 2.4). At thebasic level of this domain (receiving), an individual is able to pay attention to a certain idea (e.g., listening to music at a liveevent), but does not show any concerted interest. With internalizing, the highest level, an individual can adopt a new idea orvalue and act consistently with it (e.g., openly demonstrating an appreciation for classical music).

Figure 2.4 Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia’s Affective Domain

Source: Adapted from Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S., & Masia, B.B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook II:Affective domain. New York: David McKay. Bloom

Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain deals with physical abilities and skills. There are several taxonomies (Cangelosi, 1990; Harrow,1972; Simpson, 1972) that depict this domain that typically describe levels that move from basic physical actions to moreskilled and creative movements. Simpson (1972) outlines a domain with seven levels: perception; set; guided response;mechanism; complex overt response; adaptation; and origination. Cangelosi (1990) looks at the psychomotor domain bystating that it is useful to look at it as either voluntary muscle capabilities (e.g., flexibility, agility, or speed) or the ability toperform a specific skill (e.g., tying shoes).

Figure 2.5 Simpson’s Psychomotor Domain (1972)

Source: Adapted from Harrow, A.J. (1972). A taxonomy of the psychomotor domain: A guide for developing behavior objectives.New York: David McKay.

SummaryAttempts to understand and describe the human mind and how it works can be noted throughout history. Consideration of thetopic began in ancient times with the writings of the Greek and Roman philosophers and has continued into modern times withthe research conducted in psychology, cognitive science, and neuroscience. As the understanding of the human mind and howit works continues to grow, instructional designers need to be able to continue to determine how this information can be used topositively impact their work. Successful instructional designers know that understanding different and often very divergentperspectives on how people think will provide insights into how people learn. This understanding is important becauseunderstanding how people learn is a key element in designing successful instructional interventions.

An instructional designer who has a solid understanding of how people learn can articulate the basics of variouspsychological perspectives that describe different approaches on how people learn. This ability allows him or her to use this

knowledge to create instructional interventions that meet the goals of their clients.As described in this chapter, behaviorism and cognitivism (and their various branches) are two major psychological

perspectives that have dominated how learning has been viewed throughout the 20th century and now into the 21st century.These two divergent perspectives provide unique approaches on how learning takes place. Behaviorism stresses that learning isa result of a change in behavior based on experience, while cognitivism stresses that learning is a change in mentalrepresentations and associations resulting from experience. It is important to understand that neither approach should be usedexclusively.

Chapter Comprehension Questions

1. How people go about the process of thinking is often referred to as _________________.2. Cognition and thinking are often used to refer to the same thing.

a. True.b. False.

3. The practice of “thinking about thinking” is called:

a. Executive abilities.b. Memory.c. Mental Power.d. Metacognition.

4. Prior to philosophy, psychology greatly influenced how scholars thought about how individuals thought and learned.

a. True.b. False.

5. According to the ________________ perspective, mental processes are invisible and therefore cannot be studiedscientifically.

6. According to the __________________ perspective, the mind processes information through a series of differentprocesses that work together as a complete system.

7. A relatively new area of research that focuses on the brain and how it functions is:

a. Behaviorism.b. Cognitivism.c. Interpretivism.d. Neuroscience.

8. An instructional designer’s view on thinking is influenced primarily by their:

a. Age.b. Education and training.c. Philosophical beliefs.d. Place of birth.e. Both (a) age, and (b) education and training.

9. The perspective that borrows from different philosophical perspectives is called __________.10. Most often, _____________ is defined as being a relatively permanent change in either ________________ or in mental

representations or associations brought about by ________________ (Ormrod, 2013).11. From a _______________ perspective, learning is a change in mental representations and associations brought about by

experiences.12. From a _________________ perspective, learning is defined as a change in behavior due to experience that can be

measured.13. The three general domains of learning are __________, __________, and __________.14. The ________________ domain focuses on emotional responses.15. The ________________ domain focuses on physical abilities and skills.16. The ________________ domain focuses on six levels of mental processes.

Activities Connecting Process to Practice

1. Why is it important for instructional designers to understand different perspectives on how people think?2. You are having a discussion with a client. Your client says he recently read an article about behaviorism and cognitivism,

but he isn’t certain whether he clearly understands how each views human thinking. He asks you if you could help him

clear up any misconceptions he might have by describing the two perspectives. How would you describe the twoperspectives to your client?

3. You have been asked to give a brief talk about how perspectives on how humans think and learn have changed over time.What would you include as major topics to discuss?

4. What are some of the most common myths about the brain?5. What might a simple training session to teach someone how to properly change a flat tire look like if you took a

behaviorist approach in design the training? How about if you took a cognitivist approach or a constructivism approach?6. Create a chart that describes the major components of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.7. Discuss which learning theory you believe would be the most effective approach to take in creating instruction or

training that focuses on procedural knowledge.8. Discuss which learning theory you believe would be the most effective approach to take in creating instruction or

training that focuses on declarative knowledge.9. Locate a piece of educational software. Examine the software and determine what learning theory you believe has

guided the instructional design of the software. Explain your rationale.10. Conduct a web search on neuroscience and education. What themes do you find? How might these themes impact your

work as an instructional designer?11. Search the Web for “Dr. John Medina’s 12 Brain Rules.” Explore these. How might instructional designers use these in

the design of instruction or training?

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Part II

Examining the SituationNeeds, Task, and Learner Analysis

According to the principles of instructional design, before you can begin to create an instructional intervention for any group oflearners, you need to first thoroughly analyze the situation in order to determine the best course of action. Chapters 3, 4, and 5describe the instructional design processes that help to answer the question, What type of intervention is needed?

Chapter 3 introduces the principles, processes and practices of needs analysis, which helps determine what kind of changethe instruction should help bring about. Chapter 4 introduces task analysis, which is a way of understanding the content and/ortasks that will form the basis for the instruction being developed. Chapter 5 explains learner analysis, which is a way ofgetting to know the people the instruction is designed for.

These analysis activities are essential elements of instructional design. They help the instructional designer decide upon thegoals and objectives of the instructional event and help them select and organize the best possible activities for instruction.

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